In the Cretaceous Period (c.100 million years ago) Egypt and North Africa were radically different environments. With vast tidal flats and mangroves, and a shallow sea, the continent fostered numerous animal and plant species. Creatures like Paralititan (sauropods); the sprinting Deltadromeus; the infamous Spinosaurus; and the newcomer Tameryraptor. These have been preserved in the fossil record from Egypt and other countries in North Africa. Today, we meet some of the inhabitants of this ancient landscape…
Logo image: Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, by Paleogeeksquared, via Wikimedia.
Sound effects for dinosaurs via Jurassic World Evolution 3, copyright Frontier Developments and Universal Pictures.
The Mangrove
You are standing in shallow water, that reaches your ankles. Your boots sink slightly into a sandy mud mixture, that swirls dark and dirty around you. Nearby, the twisted roots of a mangrove shrub dig deep into the silt. The air is hot and humid; sunlight beats down over the land.
Overhead, the shadows of small, winged beasts flit past. Dragonflies buzz through the air, alighting on branches and skimming the surface of the water. Shallow ripples follow them, stirred up by tiny fish and serpents winding through the shallows. The land is vibrant and teeming with life. It’s all rather surreal. If you didn’t know better, you might think you were in the Nile Delta, that vast green expanse that now dominates Egypt’s north.
But you’re not in the Delta. You’re not even in the Nile. Technically, you are in the Sahara.
Our story today takes place 100 million years ago in the era we call the Early Cretaceous Period.[1] We are here to meet the inhabitants of a land that would become Egypt. This far back in time, the world is a radically different place. For a start, the Nile River is nowhere to be seen. The Sahara is also missing. Instead, there is a vast shallow sea.
100 million years ago, much of north Africa was submerged beneath the waters of Tethys. This ocean covered land from Spain to Malaysia, and everything in between.[2] As a result, the region that became Libya and Egypt was quite different to the sandy waste of today. Instead, this region was more coastal, filled with tidal flats, mangroves, and shallow waterways.[3] The climate was more tropical, with high humidity. Flora and fauna were abundant. Standing in the waters of this shallow, coastal environment, you are keenly aware that you are not in your own time.
Your boots squelch in the mud, as you turn towards the mangroves. All around, the roots of trees grow thick and strong. Flowering plants (or angiosperms) are common,[4] having spread rapidly over the globe in the past fifty million years.[5] The heat is damp and oppressive. The sound of insects raises a cacophony.
A booming cry echoes across the swamp. Turning towards it, you wade further inland, away from the coast. The trees are taller here, more like ferns.[6] You notice that some of them are bare, as if stripped of their leaves.
Passing a thicket, the forest opens up, and you see the cause of this defoliation. Amid the stands of ferns and mangroves, tall necks rise gracefully. Huge bodies lumber between the trees, and short tails swish back and forth in the heat. The four-legged animals are sauropods, mighty plant-eaters that are among the biggest creatures to ever walk the earth.
Paralititan
You’ve come across a species that scientists know as Paralititan (or “tidal giant”).[7] They stand on four legs, with long raised necks leading up to a small head. The Paralititan are enormous, measuring 26m (or 85 feet) in length.[8] At 60 metric tons (65 imperial), they are giants, some of the largest sauropods ever recorded.
Supporting all that growth took a lot of energy, and Paralititan probably had to consume about 40kg of plant material per day (88 pounds). The diet of ferns and mangrove leaves was dense and chewy; but they had a strange way of eating. Sauropods like these had short, peg-like teeth, which they used to strip foliage from a branch in one dragging bite. Swallowing the mouthful whole, rather than wasting time chewing, they could drag huge quantities from a tree in relatively short time. As you watch, the Paralititan carve a swathe through the prehistoric forest.
The animals move in a herd, and you notice a small group of juveniles among the adults. These “infants” are still immense, several metres long. But even at that size, they are vulnerable. The herd sticks together. Perhaps one or two keep watch, especially when it was time to drink. Dipping their heads down to the shallow pools, the titans drink deeply. The lookouts keep a sharp eye – here at the water, predators are more likely to wait in ambush.
The trees are quiet, though. The herd drinks and no one bothers them. As they slake their thirst, the leaders begin to echo the call to move on. The Paralititan turn away from the waterways and head back into the treetops. Their day’s feeding is far from done.
The group rumbles on. Do you follow them, or seek out other animals? The animal tracks are enormous; it should be easy to find them later if you wish. And with so many sauropods around (including the juveniles) there’s every chance a predator is lurking nearby.
Speaking of which, what’s that?
Deltadromeus
As you move through the trees, you suddenly glimpse a shadow. Standing on two legs, it has long arms, an extended tail, and a sharp, tooth-filled snout. This obscure creature seems like a dangerous companion; and you don’t have any time to hide.
This beast is called Deltadromeus agilis, or “fast delta runner.”[9] It is a fearsome creature, with long slender legs, like a sprinter. If it gave chase, the animal would probably be on you before the scream escaped your lips. Its weight would slam you to the ground. Long arms, tipped with claws, would rip at your body. The jaws would clamp over your head or neck, driving deep with a savage bite.
The Deltadromeus is about 8m in length (26 feet) and 1,000kg (slightly more than 1 imperial ton) in weight. However, it’s possible the animal reached sizes up to 12m (40feet), putting it in the same length-range as the famous Tyrannosaurs.[10] That’s just the length, though. Compared to those enormous hunters, Deltadromeus was slender and swift. Weighing just one ton, approximately, the animal was gracile, specialized in running. Perhaps it caught smaller prey, like rodents; or scavenged the remains left by larger, heavier animals. Certainly, for the sauropods nearby (the Paralititan), Deltadromeus probably wasn’t a thread to adults. It might snatch a juvenile here and there, though. They would need to be wary. As would you.
The animal moves swiftly through the trees. For a moment, it seems it may have spotted you; but the Deltadromeus carries on, following the footsteps of the Paralititan. Presumably, the animal is hoping to find a juvenile, something small it can snatch away and steal. As it goes, the Deltadromeus is silent, beginning its hunt. You breathe a quiet sigh of relief. The animal is deadly on any day, and you didn’t notice before it would have been too late.
==
Mawsonia
You walk on, skirting the edges of the mangroves. To one side, the tall fern trees dominate. To the other, placid waters fill the swamp. The sound of insects is quieter here, but you still see dragonflies and beetles crawling through the growth. Overhead, the shadows of pterosaurs flit by, as they hunt for bugs to snack.
As you walk, you are struck by the sheer abundance of life in this region. Thinking back (or is that forward) to the wastes of Sahara, the swampy expanse of prehistoric Bahariya is like another planet. Animals, foliage, and Water abound. A rich and remarkably productive environment. Here, on the edges of the future desert, the land is teeming with life.
Life and death.
As you follow the river, you notice the fish which flit through the waters. These are Mawsonia, a type of coelacanth fish that filled the freshwater swamps.[11] They are big boys, about 3.5m (or 11 feet) long, with six large fins along the body. Making their way along the deeper channels, they perhaps fed on crustaceans, snails, and smaller fish.
They’re no harm to you, unless you got in the middle of one thrashing about. But best stay clear; the Mawsonia are a favoured prey of some larger creatures.
Pterosaurs
A couple hundred metres on, you pause as high-pitched cries fill the air. Glancing up, you see shadows flitting past overhead. The flap of wings echoes across the treetops.
Pterosaurs.
The shallow seas and mangrove swamps of North Africa provide abundant hunting grounds for small flying reptiles. Not dinosaurs themselves, these animals are nonetheless a key part of the ecosystem. As you pause, a flock of tiny bird-like reptiles descend onto the mud flats. Their heads are just 10-20cm long, with straight narrow beaks. These are Leptostomia (or “slender mouth”), discovered in the region of Morocco and described in 2021.
The pterosaurs gather on the ground to poke at the mud. They seek small insects and creatures living below the surface, and early crustaceans similar to mollusks and crabs. Flocking together, they keep a fair distance from the Spinosaur, clustering near the water on the opposite bank from that fearsome beast.
You watch, quietly, as they chirp and squawk at each other. The mangrove is calm, but for the hum of insects, and the fluttering of the pterosaurs. For a moment, it all seems tranquil.
A shadow flits past, and pandemonium erupts in the glade. Sprinting from the trees, the Deltadromeus has returned. It bursts forth, slender limbs launching it at the gathered pterosaurs. With a snap, the Deltadromeus seizes one of the Leptostomia. Its teeth shear through the pterosaur’s miniscule body. A single bite does the trick, and the hunter devours his prey.
The other Leptostomia have scattered, taking to their wings as swiftly as they can. Disappearing across the treetops, their cries fade away into the distance. The Deltadromeus finishes its meal, pauses briefly to scratch at its snout, then wanders off into the forest. In a few moments, the chaos has subsided, and the glade resumes its peaceful calm.
For a moment, it all seems tranquil.
Spinosaurus
The peace is broken by a low rumble, that echoes through the glade. A deep hiss, as if from an enormous crocodile, fills the air. You can’t tell where it originates, but you understand the meaning.
It’s time to find a tree.
You scramble for the mangroves and clamber up the branches. Away from danger, as high as you can go. Peeking out among the leaves, you search for the source of that menacing sound. There, across the river, you spot it. An enormous creature, on two legs, hunts the shallows for prey. This is Bahariya’s apex predator: a monstrous beast of claw, fang, and spine. It is called the Spinosaurus.
Spinosaurus aegyptiacus (or “Egyptian Spine-Lizard”) is one of the largest carnivores to ever walk the earth. Possibly the largest, in terms of sheer length. At 14m (or 46 feet) it seems to have been slightly longer than even a Tyrannosaurus rex (although the latter still wins in bulk and mass). Weighing 7.5 metric tons (8.2 imperial), the Spinosaurus is an imposing creature.
Standing on the riverbank, the animal is absorbed in hunting. From your perch in the top of the mangroves, you are not entirely safe. But the animal has not noticed you (or at least, it doesn’t care). Staying quite still, you study it from afar.
The Spinosaurus’ head is long, with a narrow snout and straight, cone-shaped teeth. On the top of its cranium, the animal bears a prominent crest or protuberance, like a miniature ridge along the middle of its brow. The crest is relatively small, compared to other dinosaurs, but it’s distinctive, giving the animal a curious profile. If you looked Spinosaurus directly in the face, it might resemble a hybrid of bird and crocodile. For you, visiting from ancient Egypt, it must seem genuinely bizarre (perhaps the great god Sobek, working with Djehuty/Thoth had some hand in its design).
Past the head, the animal has a long, muscular neck, curving down towards its body in a kind of S-shape. The body itself is remarkably narrow, considering the animal’s size. You might expect something bulky, like the famed Tyrannosaurs. Spinosaurus, however, is more on the slender side. It is still a mighty best, make no mistake.
Along the back, there is the most distinctive feature. A row of bony spines, emerging from the vertebra, extend upwards out of the body. Between them extended flesh (of uncertain thickness), formed a thin sail. The purpose of this feature is debated among palaeontologists. It may be for display, rippling with bright colours to ward off rivals or entice potential mates. Perhaps it helped regulate body temperature, absorbing or radiating heat to keep the animal warm or cool respectively. However you imagine it, the spines of the Spinosaurus are its most remarkable element.
Those bony protrusions do not stop at the back. Indeed, it seems that Spinosaurus also bears a ridge along its tail. The spines carry on, perhaps less sharply, forming a broad “paddle-like” appendage. The use of this element is debated among palaeontologists (more on that a bit later) but combined with its large sail it makes the Spinosaurus one distinctive animal.
On the edge of the waterway, the Spinosaurus stands quite still. You notice that its legs are surprisingly short for its size. The animal is clearly not built for running or swift pursuit. Instead, with its long snout and conical teeth, Spinosaurus hunts a different prey.
On the bank, the animal bobs its head into the shallows, dipping its snout below the surface. The creature hunts for fish, a prey for which it is well suited. Compared to a Tyrannosaur, for example, the Spinosaurus’ nostrils are further back on the skull, allowing it to lower its snout into water without sacrificing breath.[12] The creature may also have a network of nerves, within its snout, allowing it to detect prey moving through the water.[13] Perhaps the Spinosaurus hunted similarly to a modern heron.[14] Standing at the edge of the water, it remained perfectly still with its snout submerged. Waiting for the telltale vibrations of nearby fish. Then, the jaws would snap, thrash momentarily, before lifting their scaly prize out of the waterway.[15]
As you watch, the Spinosaurus lunges forward, splashing into the water. There is a brief struggle, and then it raises its head, clutching a large Mawsonia in its jaws. The enormous fish struggles with all its might, but the Spinosaurus chomps down. Rounded fangs (like enormous fish knives) slice into the flesh. The long arms, with wicked claws, raise up to slash at the fish. The fight is soon over. The Mawsonia slumps, defeated, and the predator begins to feast.
==
For a long while, you watch the Spinosaur eat. The glade is quiet, but for the crunch of Mawsonia bones. Perhaps it’s time to move on.
Slipping down from the tree, you creep into the forest.
Tameryraptor
Soon, you find the tracks of the Paralititan. Leaving the waterways, the giant sauropods have left a trail of disorder in their wake. You are dismayed to see other footprints shadowing them. This second set has three toes, which means a theropod. Probably a carnivore, hunting near the pack.
You move on, cautiously. There’s every chance that Deltadromeus is lurking about, still seeking a juvenile. You keep a sharp eye, as best you can, but stick to the shadows.
Alarmingly, the stench of blood appears on the wind. The breeze, blowing into your face and down towards the river, carries the metallic tang of a fresh kill. Creeping from tree to tree, you seek out the unfortunate sight.
There, in a clearing, you spot it. A dead Paralititan, just a baby, lies on the ground. Leaning over it, the enormous bulk of a predator stands on two feet. For a moment, you think it’s the Deltadromeus, continuing some murderous spree. But it’s not. This is something larger.
The creature glances up, looking into the wind. You see now that the hunter is Tameryraptor, or “Thief of the Beloved Land.”[16] It is a theropod dinosaur, standing on two legs, with short forearms. Its head is shorter than Spinosaurus, but more robust. A small horn emerges from the nose, and low ridges run along the snout. The animal is about 8m long (26 feet). It rivals the Deltadromeus and certainly outclasses it in weight.
The name of this animal is particularly fun, because it’s based on an ancient Egyptian term. Ta-Mery means “The Beloved/Cultivated Land.” It’s one of the common names for the Nile Valley region during the pharaonic period. Combined with the Latin raptor meaning “thief,” the Tameryraptor is a fun addition to prehistoric Egypt.
Tameryraptor belongs to a group of dinosaurs known as Carcharodontosaurids (or shark-toothed-lizards), due to the shape of their teeth. Far less famous than the tyrannosaurids, they are nonetheless a fearsome type of dinosaur. Their skulls are slender (all the better to get between trees, my dear). Their bite will puncture, driving deep into flesh, and crushing the bones of smaller animals.
Like the juvenile Paralititan, that has fallen prey to this hunter. The Tameryraptor bends down, to rip great chunks from the flesh. Swallowing them whole, it takes its time. A creature like this has little to fear.
Except…
Your heart skips a beat as you hear that familiar hiss. Coming upwind, the Spinosaurus has appeared at the edge of the clearing. The Tameryraptor looks up with a start, a ragged chunk of sauropod hanging from its mouth. The air goes still, as the two great predators assess one another. You try to hold your breath.
Spinosaurus snarls, a clear and distinctive challenge. For a long moment, the Tameryraptor seems like to consider meeting that threat. However, the Spinosaur has the unmistakable advantage in size and weight. A fight between these two would be fierce, but probably one-sided.
The Tameryraptor shifts its weight and begins to back away. The Spinosaurus relaxes, slightly, seeing its victory underway. Then, the Tameryraptor lunges. Not at its rival, but at its prey. Snapping its jaws down over the dead Paralititan infant, it tears at the body. There is a disgusting ripping sound, and suddenly Tameryraptor is disappearing into the trees. As it goes, it leaves behind a few ragged chunks of the dead sauropod. A paltry prize, hardly worth fighting over.
The Spinosaurus, much larger but also much slower, does not give chase. Satisfying itself with a hollow victory, it approaches the juvenile carcass. You turn away, as the crunching sound of bones breaking fills the clearing once more.
You’ve seen enough. Perhaps it’s time to get out of here.
You wander off through the trees, seeking the herd of sauropods. Behind you, a shadow flits between the trunks. Deltadromeus is still on the prowl, and it’s getting nearer…
Conclusion
Thank you for listening to this mini episode. I hope you have enjoyed a glimpse at Egypt before antiquity. In the Cretaceous era, around 100 million years ago, North Africa had a far different environment. From the enormous ocean which covered most of the Sahara, to the swampy mangroves which stretched across the western desert, the land was entirely alien to that which the Egyptians would later know. Still, traces of this history survive, preserved in rock for the sharp eye to find. If you know where to go, you can catch glimpses of this amazing, but vanished past.
The best fossil remains come from two places in Egypt. First, the Bahariya Oasis, in the Western Desert: here, large rock formations preserve features of the ancient mangroves and its animal inhabitants. Bahariya is where the first Spinosaurus fossils emerged, along with sauropods like Paralititan, and the theropod called Tameryraptor. That last one is a new discovery, sort of. The fossils first emerged in the early 20th Century, but it achieved scientific recognition, as a distinct species, in 2025.[17] Palaeontological work, in Egypt’s western desert, is still bringing up the goods.
Of course, the “star” of the show is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus. This animal came to light in the early 1900s, when a German palaeontologist name Ernst Stromer led excavation work in Bahariya. He published the Spinosaurus in 1915.[18] Stromer discovered many fossils, and named many species, from his trips to Egypt. Sadly, the fossils for Spinosaurus (and others) eventually went to the palaeontology museum in Munich, Germany. In April 1944, Allied bombers struck that city, and the museum suffered terrible damage. Spinosaurus, and many other fossils, were obliterated.
For decades after, the Spinosaurus disappeared into obscurity. Academics knew of it and discussed Stromer’s publications of the findings. But with no physical specimen surviving, there was nothing to examine or analyse. It wasn’t until new finds emerged in 1996 and 2014, that scientists could begin to reevaluate the Spinosaurus creature.
I released my initial version of this episode in 2019, and my description of the animal was largely based on a 2014 study of the new specimens.[19] At that time, palaeontologists like Nizar Ibrahim argued that Spinosaurus was largely aquatic. Following that picture, I built my vision of the animal primarily submerged, swimming through the swamps.
That picture has changed, substantially. Or should I say, it’s come under heavy debate.
Starting in 2020, a variety of studies have come forth arguing the finer details of Spinosaurus’ skeletal structure and how it likely behaved. Computer modelling of the animal’s body, its physical adaptations, and how those would function on land or in water, have led to certain conclusions. Long story short, the current argument points away from “Spinosaurus in water” towards “Spinosaurus on land.” Now, that’s a rabbit hole of its own; and outside my academic specialty. So, if you’re interested, I’ll put references in the episode description. For the Spinosaurs generally (both the Egyptian one and other species), I can recommend a new book. In 2025, Drs. David Hone and Mark Witton published Spinosaur Tales: The Biology and Ecology of the Spinosaurs. Dr. Hone also has a podcast, called Terrible Lizards, covering all manner of species (and new discoveries). In October 2025 that podcast released an episode called Spinosaur Tales. So, you have options for the material.
For the other Egyptian species, there isn’t much (yet) in the public sphere, mostly academic articles. I’ve put some links in the episode description should you wish to know more.
Today, I focussed on the Early Cretaceous (around 100 mya). But there are plenty of other species, from different eras (both earlier and later). For example, the sauropod Mansourasaurus (or “Mansoura Lizard) lived during the Late Cretaceous (the final phase of the dinosaur era). This long-necked herbivore measured approx. 10m (33feet) and weighed 5 metric tons. That was discovered by scientists from Mansoura University, at the Kharga Oasis and published in 2018.
Similarly, there was the giant creature Stomatosuchus (or “Mouth Crocodile”).[20] As the name suggests, it was a crocodilian animal, measuring approx. 10m (33 feet). Its most noteworthy feature was a large “pouch-like” sack underneath the snout. This may have been used to capture or swallow prey, like a modern pelican. Alas, the only (known) specimen of this animal was excavated by Stromer in 1911; and it, too, fell victim to the bombs of 1944. So, we don’t know much about it… for now.
Finally, there is Bahariasaurus (or “Bahariya Lizard”). Again, discovered in the early 1900s and destroyed in 1944. It was a theropod, possibly a distant relative of the Deltadromeus (although that is debated, and a work-in-progress).[21] Based on Stromer’s publications, it was roughly the same height and length as a Carcharodontosaurus or Tyrannosaurus rex. For now, though, there are mere scraps to go on.
Anyway… Egypt has a lot more to offer than “just” human history. The landscape of North Africa was a diverse and productive environment. Today, palaeontologists across the region are uncovering new finds, producing new studies, and re-evaluating past works.
==
This won’t be my last version of this episode. As new finds come to light, and scholars keep refining their picture of Spinosaurus, I’ll come back to this again; and probably again after that. For now, I hope you’ve enjoyed this updated look at Egypt’s dinosaur species.
And for those wondering. Yes, at some point in the (not-too-distant) future, I will do an episode about the Valley of the Whales, which is about 40mya, and preserves a beautiful variety of marine life. I’ll get to that as soon as practical, but I’m less familiar with aquatic mammals, so it requires more background study. Anyway, it’ll happen eventually; hopefully before too long.
Thanks for listening; and may the great Sobek, lord of crocodilians and (presumably) father of all reptile species, protect you and your loved ones.
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cretaceous
[2] Britannica. (2021). Tethys Sea | Definition, Location, & Facts. https://www.britannica.com/place/Tethys-Sea
[3] Wanas, H. A., & Assal, E. M. (2021). Provenance, tectonic setting and source area-paleoweathering of sandstones of the Bahariya Formation in the Bahariya Oasis, Egypt: An implication to paleoclimate and paleogeography of the southern Neo-Tethys region during Early Cenomanian. Sedimentary Geology, 413, 105822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2020.105822
[4] Coiffard, C., El Atfy, H., Darwish, M. H., & Mohamed, A. (2025). A reappraisal of the vegetation from the dinosaur-bearing Bahariya Formation (lower Cenomanian; Cretaceous), Egypt. Swiss Journal of Palaeontology, 144(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13358-025-00387-0
[5] Simonin, K. A., & Roddy, A. B. (2018). Genome downsizing, physiological novelty, and the global dominance of flowering plants. PLoS Biology, 16(1), e2003706. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2003706
[6] Hone, & Witton, Spinosaur Tales, 249.
[7] Smith, J. B., Lamanna, M. C., Lacovara, K. J., Dodson, P., Smith, J. R., Poole, J. C., Giegengack, R., & Attia, Y. (2001). A Giant Sauropod Dinosaur from an Upper Cretaceous Mangrove Deposit in Egypt. Science, 292(5522), 1704–1706. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1060561; Wikipedia. (2025). Paralititan. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paralititan&oldid=1327839898
[8] Roach, J. (2001, May 31). “Tidal Giant” Roamed Coastal Swamps of Ancient Africa. National Geographic News. https://web.archive.org/web/20010605022420/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/05/0531_tidaldinosaur.html
[9] Sereno, P. C., Dutheil, D. B., Iarochene, M., Larsson, H. C. E., Lyon, G. H., Magwene, P. M., Sidor, C. A., Varricchio, D. J., & Wilson, J. A. (1996). Predatory Dinosaurs from the Sahara and Late Cretaceous Faunal Differentiation. Science, 272(5264), 986–991. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.272.5264.986
[10] Sereno et al (1996).
[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawsonia_(fish)
[12] Hone, & Witton, Spinosaur Tales, 132—133.
[13] Dal Sasso, C., Maganuco, S., & Cioffi, A. (2009). A neurovascular cavity within the snout of the predatory dinosaur Spinosaurus. In 1st International Congress on North African Vertebrate Palaeontology; Dal Sasso, C., Maganuco, S., & Iurino, D. (2014). Update on the internal structure of the snout of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus.
[14] Hone, D., & Holtz Jr, T. R. (2021). Evaluating the ecology of Spinosaurus: Shoreline generalist or aquatic pursuit specialist? Palaeontologia Electronica, 24(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.26879/1110
[15] Myhrvold, N. P., Baumgart, S. L., Vidal, D., Fish, F. E., Henderson, D. M., Saitta, E. T., & Sereno, P. C. (2024). Diving dinosaurs? Caveats on the use of bone compactness and pFDA for inferring lifestyle. PLOS ONE, 19(3), e0298957. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298957
[16] Kellermann, M., Cuesta, E., & Rauhut, O. W. M. (2025). Re-evaluation of the Bahariya Formation carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) and its implications for allosauroid phylogeny. PLOS ONE, 20(1), e0311096. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311096
[17] Kellermann, M., Cuesta, E., & Rauhut, O. W. M. (2025). Re-evaluation of the Bahariya Formation carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) and its implications for allosauroid phylogeny. PLOS ONE, 20(1), e0311096. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311096
[18] Stromer, E. (1915). Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 3. Das Original des Theropoden Spinosaurus aegyptiacus nov. Gen., nov. Spec”. Abhandlungen Der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, 28(3), 1–32.
[19] Ibrahim, N., Sereno, P. C., Dal Sasso, C., Maganuco, S., Fabbri, M., Martill, D. M., Zouhri, S., Myhrvold, N., & Iurino, D. A. (2014). Semiaquatic adaptations in a giant predatory dinosaur. Science, 345(6204), 1613–1616. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1258750
[20] Stromer, E. (1925). Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman) 7. Stomatosuchus inermis Stromer, ein schwach bezahnter Krokodilier. Abhandlungen Der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, 30(6), 1–22. https://publikationen.badw.de/de/008681374/008681374.pdf
[21] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahariasaurus
Species
Paralititan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralititan
Deltadromeus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltadromeus
Mawsonia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawsonia_(fish)
Leptostomia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptostomia
Spinosaurus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinosaurus
Tameryraptor: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tameryraptor
Other animals not mentioned in this episode:
Bahariasaurus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahariasaurus
Mansourasaurus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansourasaurus
Stomatosuchus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomatosuchus
Aegyptosaurus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptosaurus
Dicraeosaurus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicraeosaurus
Bibliography
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